Category Archives: Intellectual Property

The Promise of, and Legal Issues and Challenges With, Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technology

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[Originally published in December 2016. Updated on April 7, 2018 to clarify the explanation of blockchain and distributed ledger technology and to add more information on the legal risks and challenges.]

Blockchain and distributed ledger technology is poised to revolutionize many aspects of the world around us. It may prove to be as disruptive and innovative of a force as augmented reality. Many people associate “blockchain” with “Bitcoin,” whose meteoric rise as a cryptocurrency has been well reported. However, they are not one and the same. Bitcoin is an application; blockchain and distributed ledger technology are the methods behind it.  But what is it? How might it change the world? And what legal and other risks does it bring?

What is Distributed Ledger Technology and Blockchain?

The Old – Centralized Ledgers

Centralized ledgers (a database, list, or other information record) have played an important role in commerce for millennia, recording information about things such as physical property, intangible property including financial holdings, and other assets. The most recent innovation in centralized ledgers has been the move from physical ledgers (paper, stone tablets, etc.) to digital ledgers stored electronically. A “centralized ledger” is a ledger maintained and administered in a single, central location (e.g., a computer database stored on a server) accessible by anyone without use of access controls (public) or through an access control layer by persons or organizations with valid login credentials (permissive). This is a “hub-and-spoke” system of data access and management. Centralized ledgers have historically had many benefits, such as minimized data redundancy, limited number of access points to the data for security purposes, centralized administration, and centralized end user access. However, there are also disadvantages, such as greater potential for loss or inaccessibility if the central location suffers a hardware failure or connectivity outage, inability to recover lost data elements, and a dependence on network connectivity to allow access to the ledger by its users.

The New – Distributed Ledgers

Distributed ledgers seek to address these disadvantages by distributing (mirroring) the ledger contents to a network of participants (aka “nodes”) through a software programso that each participant has a complete and identical copy of the ledger, and ensuring all nodes agree on changes to the distributed ledger. Nodes can be individuals, sites, companies/institutions, geographical areas, etc. There is no centralized administrator or “primary node” — if a change is made to one copy of the ledger, that change is automatically propagated to all copies of the ledger in the system based on the rules of the system (called a “consensus algorithm“) which ensures that each distributed copy of the ledger is identical. For example, in Bitcoin, each node uses an algorithm that gives a score to each version of the database, and if a node receives a higher scoring version of the ledger, it adopts the higher scoring version and automatically transmits it to other nodes. Since the distributed ledger software on each node validates each addition to the distributed ledger, it’s extremely difficult to introduce a fraudulent transaction (to put it another way, transactions are audited in real time). Essentially, each node builds an identical version of the distributed ledger using the information it receives from other nodes. The use of distributed models in computing goes back to the origins of the Internet itself — ARPANET, which evolved into what we know today as the Internet, used a distributed model instead of a linear model to manage the transfer of data packets between computer networks.

The software on each node uses cryptographic signatures to verify that it is authorized to view entries in, and make changes to, the distributed ledger. If a participant with rights to modify the ledger (e.g., a digital token giving the participant the right to record a transaction) makes an addition to the ledger using the participant’s secure keys (e.g., a record of a change in ownership of an asset or recording of a new asset), the addition to the ledger is validated by the consensus algorithm and propagated to all mirrored copies of the ledger, which helps to ensure that the distributed ledger is auditable and verifiable. A key difference between centralized and distributed ledgers is that a distributed ledger cannot be forked — if you make a copy of a centralized ledger and store it somewhere else, it will be out of sync with the original copy, whereas each copy of a distributed ledger is kept identical by the client software.

Thus, the five typical characteristics of a distributed ledger are:

  1. distributed copies among nodes via client software;
  2. cryptographic signatures, or “keys,” to allow nodes to view, or add to, the distributed ledger in an auditable and verifiable fashion;
  3. a digital token (better known as a cryptocurrency)used within many distributed ledger networks to allow participants to record ledger entries;
  4. a consensus algorithm to ensure distributed copies of the ledger match among participants without the need for a centralized administrator; and
  5. record permanency so that verified entry accepted to the ledger via the consensus algorithm becomes permanent (it can be corrected via a later addition to the ledger but never removed).

Blockchain

While most press reporting around blockchains equates blockchain with distributed ledgers, a “blockchain” is a specific type of distributed ledger. Each record of new value added to the ledger and each transaction affecting entries in the ledger (which we will collectively call a “block“) includes a timestamp and a cryptographic verification code based on a data signature or “hash” from the previous block which “chains” it to the previous block, forming a “chain of blocks,” or “blockchain,” within the nodes hosting the blockchain. Because each block is cryptographically tied to the previous block via one-way hash, the entire chain is secure – a client can verify that a block in the blockchain validates against the previous block, but it does not allow someone to trace the blockchain forward. If a block in the chain is altered, it changes the hash value and no longer matches the hash stored in later blocks, and the alteration will be rejected by the nodes on the blockchain network. In a blockchain, transactions entered into the system during a specified period of time are bundled together and added to the blockchain as a new block.

There are three primary types of blockchain networks – public, private, and permissioned.

  • Public blockchains allow anyone to participate, and therefore rely more heavily on a strong consensus algorithm to ensure the requisite level of trust between blockchain participants.
  • Private blockchainsare limited to a discrete and specified group of participants, are usually small, and may not require use of a cryptocurrency given the inherent level of trust amount private blockchain participants. Private blockchains often do not require a strong consensus algorithm.
  • Permissioned blockchainsfunction much like public blockchains, but require participants have permission to access, transact on, or create new blocks within a blockchain.

Tennessee’s recent state law on blockchain, Tn. Stat. § 47-10-201, contains a good summary definition.  It defines “blockchain technology” as “distributed ledger technology that uses a distributed, decentralized, shared and replicated ledger, which may be public or private, permissioned or permissionless, or driven by tokenized crypto currencies or tokenless.  The data on the ledger is protected with cryptography, is immutable and auditable, and provides an uncensored truth.”  Arizona’s statutory definition (which predates Tennessee’s) is almost identical, except that “crypto currencies” is replaced with “crypto economics.”

Bitcoin is an early, and famous, example of a public blockchain application. Nodes on the Bitcoin blockchain network earn new bitcoins as a reward for solving a cryptographic puzzle through computing power, or “mining.” Transactions for the purchase and sale of bitcoins are also recorded in a block in the Bitcoin blockchain – the blockchain is the public ledger of all Bitcoin transactions. In other blockchain applications, the cyrptocurrency is used as payment for blockchain transactions.

Blockchain and distributed ledger technology is not intended to fully replace existing centralized ledgers such as databases. If a number of parties using different systems need to track something electronically that changes or updates frequently, a distributed ledger may be a good solution. If those needs are not there, or if there is a continuing need to rely on paper transaction records, a centralized ledger continues to be the better choice. Companies need to ensure there is a compelling ROI and business case before implementing a blockchain development and implementation program.

Smart Contracts

An important concept in blockchain technology is the “smart contract.”  Tennessee’s blockchain law defines a smart contract as “an event-driven program, that runs on a distributed, decentralized, shared and replicated ledger and that can take custody over and instruct transfer of assets on that ledger.” Arizona’s definition is identical other than an additional reference to state.  In other words, a smart contract is a computer program encoded into a blockchain that digitally verifies, executes, and/or enforces a contract without the need for human intervention. Where a traditional contract involves risk that a party will fail to perform (e.g., a shipper delivers products but the recipient fails to make payment for the products), smart contracts are self-executing and self-verifying.  In a smart contract for the purchase of goods tracked via blockchain, the seller and buyer would program a smart contract into the blockchain.  Once the delivery record is added to the blockchain, the smart contract automatically validates the shipper’s performance, and automatically triggers payment from the buyer.  Since execution of a smart contract is part of the blockchain, it is permanent once completed. Blockchain protocols such as Ethereum have developed programming languages for smart contracts.

How Might Blockchain and Distributed Ledgers Change the World?

The impact of new technology presents at first as rapidly disruptive (positively and negatively), but often manifests organically and transparently to change the world over time.

Roy Amara, a former president of the Institute of the Future, said that people overestimate a technology’s effect in the short term and underestimate it in the long run, a statement known as “Amara’s Law.” However, I think a corollary is in order – the impact of new technology presents at first as rapidly disruptive (both positively and negatively), but often manifests organically and transparently to change the world over time at a proportional rate to the maturity of the commercially available applications, to consensus on technological standards, and to decreasing costs to implement (and increasing ROI from implementing) the technology in practical business and consumer situations. For example, RFID technology was touted early on as a “change the world” technology, and it has — but most prominently through integration of the technology organic and innovative improvements to supply chain and inventory management. Social networking is viewed by many as a “killer app” (a catalyst that accelerates the adoption of a new technology) which helped usher in the third Age of the Internet, and it has changed the world by changing how we connect with others. Both took years to become pervasive in society and industry.

Blockchain and distributed ledger networks have the potential to change the way many systems and business processes work across industries. Financial and currency transactions are a prominent emerging application of distributed ledger networks and blockchain technology. Since blockchain and distributed ledger networks are platform-agnostic, a distributed ledger could be stored in different hardware/software configurations across different nodes, reducing the need for expensive and time-consuming upgrades to support the distributed model. For example, a permissioned blockchain model could help an organization such as the US Veterans Administration better manage appointment scheduling across a large number of hospitals and clinics (in fact, a resolution was recently passed in the US House of Representatives promoting just that, “to ensure transparency and accountability.” Industry groups, such as the Blockchain in Transport Alliance (BiTA), have sprung up to help develop and promote industry-specific blockchain standards and applications.

The technology could also be used in applications such as better and more secure management of governmental records and other services; tracking tax collection and receipts; managing assets; identity verification; decentralized voting; managing and tracking inventory levels and B2B/B2C product fulfillment; tracking the “data supply chain” for the flow of data among systems; managing system access controls; protection of critical public and privacy infrastructure; tracking royalties due to artists for the use of their works; and use of smart contracts to digitally create, execute, and enforce agreements between parties via blockchain transactions. Distributed ledger networks have the advantage of being more secure as the consensus algorithm makes it considerably difficult for a cyber-attacker to successfully alter the distributed ledger. It could also allow for greater access transparency, a central tenet of many privacy principles, by allowing individuals to access records in the ledger relating to them or containing their information.

Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Legal Risks and Issues

As with any new technology, blockchain creates some interesting conflicts with existing laws and regulations and raises interesting and complex legal and compliance issues.  These include:

Data privacy issues. Distributed ledger technology such as blockchain is inherently designed to share information among every participant and node. If information in a ledger transaction or block contains private information, such as an account number or company confidential information, it will be visible to every user of every node. This is one of the reasons permissive and privacy distributed ledgers are a focus of many companies seeking to innovate in the space. Additionally, as nodes in a distributed ledger network can be geographically disparate, rules and requirements for the transfer of data between geographies may play a major role. It is also possible that at some point in the future decryption technology will evolve to the point where cryptographic signatures used in blockchain and distributed ledgers may no longer be considered safe.

EU personal data and the “Right to be Forgotten.”  In the EU, personal privacy is considered a fundamental human right under the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is Europe’s new comprehensive data protection framework that as of May 25, 2018 has the force of law in every EU member state.  Under Article 17 of the GDPR, EU data subjects have a “right to be forgotten” which requires companies to erase personal information about that data subject if certain conditions are met (e.g., the personal data is no longer necessary in relation to the purposes for which they were collected or otherwise processed). This right has cropped up in the United States as well, for example, in California for minors under 18 with respect to websites, social media sites, mobile apps, and other online services under Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 22580-81.  The “right to be forgotten” creates a direct conflict with the permanency of blockchain.  Companies should factor the “right to be forgotten” into their blockchain development planning, e.g., consider hashing technologies to pseudonymize personal data before encoding it into a blockchain, or other ways to avoid this conflict.  Developments in blockchain and distributed ledger technology may also arise to address this issue.

Jurisdictional issues.The nodes in a blockchain are often in multiple jurisdictions around the country and/or around the world.  As each is a perfect copy, this can create issues from a jurisdictional perspective.  Legal concepts such as title, contract law, regulatory requirements, etc. differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Does a blockchain network need to comply with the laws of every jurisdiction in which a node is operated?  Cross-border enforcement may become an issue – will one jurisdiction seek to impose its laws on all other nodes of a blockchain network? Blockchain network operators should consider how to specify, in a binding manner, a single choice of law and venue to govern disputes arising from the blockchain network and provide specificity as to compliance requirements.  This jurisdictional issue will likely lead to races between jurisdictions to establish themselves as a “blockchain and distributed ledger friendly” jurisdiction, just as Delaware established itself as a “corporation-friendly” jurisdiction in which many corporations choose to incorporate.  Jurisdictional issues will also impact discovery of data within the digital ledger network, e.g., through subpoenas.  The rules regarding document discovery differ from state to state.  A company seeking to obtain blockchain data through judicial process may have the ability to engage in “forum shopping” to find the most convenient, and friendly, jurisdiction in which to file a document discovery request.

Record retention risks. One of the features of blockchain and distributed ledger networks is record permanency. This permanency may be incompatible with statutory requirements for data to be destroyed and deleted after a period of time, such as credit/debit card data under PCI rules and HR data under various regulatory requirements, and under privacy frameworks such as the GDPR.  It also likely conflicts with a company’s existing record retention policies.  Given these factors, companies looking to introduce blockchain technology should review their record retention policies and create a separate “permanent” category for data stored in blockchain applications.  At the same time, a blockchain is permanent so long as the blockchain itself still exists.

Service Level Agreements.  Many companies include a service level agreement (SLA) in their service agreements, which provides committed minimum service levels at which the service will perform, and often includes remedies for a breach of the SLA.  SLAs are relatively easy to offer when they are limited to a company’s own systems and infrastructure.  However, a blockchain (other than perhaps a small private blockchain) may by its very nature be distributed beyond a company’s own network.  SLAs often exclude from downtime issues outside of its control, e.g., downtime caused by a third party’s hardware or software.  Does a third-party node still fit within this? Many SLAs also address latency, i.e., the time it takes for a system to respond to an instruction. Companies will also need to think about what measure of latency (if any) should apply to transactions via blockchain and other distributed ledgers, and how to address blockchain in their SLAs.

Liability and Force Majeure issues. Companies routinely implement controls (processes and procedures) to manage their systems and operations, which controls may be audited by customers/partners or certified under standards such as SOC 2. But who is accountable for a database distributed across geographies and companies? Use of a distributed ledger system with nodes outside of a company’s systems means ceding some control to an automated process and to a decentralized group of participants in the distributed ledger/blockchain. An error in a record in a distributed ledger becomes permanent and can be corrected but never removed. Is an issue with a third-party node considered a force majeure event which excuses performance under an agreement? Is the type of network (public, private or permissioned) a factor?  Companies will need to think about how blockchain should tie into an agreement’s general force majeure provision, and how to allocate blockchain risk within a contract (through indemnities, limitation of liability, etc.).

Insurance issues.  Any new technology is quickly tested under insurance policies.  Companies will begin to tender claims under their electronic errors and omissions policies, commercial general liability policies, and possibly specialized cyber policies.  As insurance companies build up experience with blockchain claims, companies will likely see new endorsements and exclusions limiting insurance carriers’ liability under standard policies for blockchain-related losses.  This is often closely followed by the emergence of custom policy riders (for additional premium) to provide add-on insurance protection for blockchain-related losses.  Companies implementing blockchain technologies may want to discuss blockchain-related losses with their insurance carriers.

Intellectual property issues.As with any new technology, there has already been a flood of patent applications by companies “staking their claim” in the brave new frontier of blockchain and distributed ledger. While the core technology is open source, companies have created proprietary advancements in which they may assert patent or other intellectual property rights.  Dozens of companies have already obtained blockchain patents.  Technology and other financial companies have undoubtedly already filed large numbers of blockchain patents that are working their way through the Patent and Trademark Office.  As is often the case with new technologies, there will likely be a flurry of patent infringement lawsuits as new patent holders seek to enforce their exclusive rights to their inventions.  Adopters of blockchain using custom applications or non-standard implementations should be especially sensitive as to whether their application or implementation could potentially be infringing filed or issued blockchain patents.  Consulting external patent counsel knowledgeable in blockchain technology will become more and more important for these types of adopters.

Confidentiality issues. Information placed into a node of a public blockchain – even if that node is within a company’s own servers – is no different than putting code into GitHub. The result is that the information enters the public domain. Even with a private or permissioned blockchain, information encoded into the blockchain becomes visible to all participants with access rights.  A company’s use of a blockchain or distributed ledger to store confidential information, such as information subject to an NDA or the company’s own trade secrets, creates a risk of a breach of confidentiality obligations or loss of trade secret protection.  Companies should consider how to prevent confidential and other sensitive company information from being stored in blockchains in a manner that could result in a breach of confidentiality. Additionally, agreements routinely require the return or destruction of the discloser’s confidential information and other provided data and/or materials upon termination or expiration. An exception for data encoded onto a blockchain must be considered.

Discovery and Subpoenas.  Information encoded into a public blockchain may be considered in the public domain.  When litigation arises, will companies be able to push back on a discovery request encompassing data in a blockchain by stating that it is publicly available?  If a person can find the identity of other nodes in a blockchain network, we may see an increase in subpoenas directed to a node for blockchain data within the copy of the blockchain or digital ledger hosted at that node (possibly based on favorable jurisdiction as noted above). Since every node maintains their own copy of a distributed ledger, and no one node owns or controls the data, this may affect the ability of a company to keep information out of third party hands as they may not have the ability to quash a subpoena directed at an independent node.

Application of existing legal structures to blockchain, smart contracts, and distributed ledgers. As is often the case, one of the challenges for lawyers and others is determining how existing laws and regulations will likely be interpreted to fit new technologies such as blockchain and distributed ledger technology; what new laws and regulations may be coming and how permissive or restrictive they may be; and how enforcement and penalties in connection with the new technologies under both new and existing laws will play out. “Smart contracts” that rely on computer algorithms to establish the formation and performance of contracts may challenge the nature and application of traditional legal principles of contract law such as contract formation and termination, and the traditional focus of laws on the acts of persons (not automated technologies), making it difficult for courts to stretch traditional contract law principles to the new technology.

Emerging laws.  It is axiomatic that law lags technology. The companies that immediately benefit from a new disruptive business method such as blockchain are those which seek to innovate applications of the method to monetize it, obtain a first mover advantage, and ideally seize significant market share for as long as possible. Industry groups and trade associations form to seek to promote it, and legislators take notice (especially given the meteoric rise of bitcoin prices during 2017). Legislators often jump to regulate something they don’t fully understand and whose potential is not fully realized, which can impede development and proliferation of the new technology.  A handful of states (including Arizona, Nevada, Tennessee, Delaware, Illinois, Vermont, and Wyoming) have already adopted blockchain-specific legislation, and this number will likely grow substantially in the next couple of years. Fortunately, the legislation enacted to date appears to support, rather than inhibit, blockchain technology. Other states have introduced or enacted legislation to study blockchain technology.

Disruptive technologies such as blockchain and distributed ledger technology bring both benefits and potential risks. If the benefits outweigh the risks on the whole, the public interest is not served when the legal, regulatory and privacy pendulum swings too far in response. The spread of blockchain and other distributed ledger technologies and applications will be dependent on the creation and fostering of a legal, regulatory, and privacy landscape that fosters innovation in the space.

Eric Lambert is the Commercial Counsel for the Transportation and Logistics division of Trimble Inc., an integrated technology and software provider focused on transforming how work is done across multiple professions throughout the world’s largest industries. He is counsel for the Trimble Transportation Mobility (including PeopleNet, Innovative Software Engineering, and Trimble Oil and Gas Services) and Trimble Transportation Enterprise (including TMW and 10-4 Systems) business units, leading providers of software and SaaS fleet mobility, communications, and data management solutions for transportation and logistics companies. He is a corporate generalist and proactive problem-solver who specializes in transactional agreements, technology/software/cloud, privacy, marketing and practical risk management. Eric is also a life-long techie, Internet junkie and avid reader of science fiction, and dabbles in a little voice-over work. Any opinions in this post are his own. This post does not constitute, nor should it be construed as, legal advice.

Use the Right Intellectual Property Contract Terms To Protect Against IP Risk

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In most technology and service agreements, one or both parties use or license the other party’s intellectual property (IP), or one party uses or licenses its own intellectual property for the other party’s benefit. However, using or benefiting from another party’s IP carries certain risks, including the risk of an infringement claim, ownership or licensing disputes, open source software, and risks arising from a bankruptcy of the IP owner/licensor.  Where managing the risks from that IP usage is important, having the right contract clauses in place to shift and mitigate this risk can be critical.

There are a number of contract clauses that can be employed to manage and shift IP risk. Two contract clauses in particular – the IP representation/warranty and the IP indemnity – may seem complimentary but can expose a party to unintended liability if used together.

IP Representation/Warranty and IP Indemnity

There are two clauses which can shift the risk of intellectual property infringement – an express representation/warranty of non-infringement and an indemnity against non-infringement. (I will not cover implied warranties of non-infringement under the Uniform Commercial Code, which are very frequently disclaimed in technology and service agreements.)

A representation/warranty of non-infringement is a statement of fact (rep) or statement or promise of condition (warranty) that intellectual property licensed and/or used does not infringe the intellectual property or other proprietary rights of third parties. An IP rep/warranty may be knowledge-qualified, i.e., “to the best of [owner/licensor’s] knowledge.” An IP rep/warranty allows the IP owner/licensor to stand behind its intellectual property, and allows the IP user/licensee to assert an “innocent infringer” defense to certain IP claims. However, like other reps and warranties, there are potentially meaningful consequences if they are breached. Like other breaches of representations, a breach could give rise to a right to void the contract and rescission damages.  Like other warranties, a breach can give rise to contract remedies, a right to withhold or cease performance under the agreement, and/or a right to terminate the agreement for cause.  The user/licensee is required to prove damages resulting from a breach of an IP representation or warranty.

An intellectual property indemnification is an obligation to defend, indemnify, and hold harmless the other party from and against losses, damages, and expenses arising or resulting from a third-party IP infringement claim. (Most service providers avoid first-party IP indemnity clauses, as they are effectively an insurance clause.)  This can be a standalone IP indemnity clause, or an indemnification obligation for breaches of reps/warranties where the agreement contains an IP rep/warranty. As it’s very difficult for an IP user/licensee to determine or mitigate the risk of infringement itself, the IP indemnity allocates this risk to the owner/licensor (subject to the limitation of liability) without the need for the user/licensee to prove damages or other losses. Watch the geographic scope of the indemnity to ensure it matches where the IP will be used – if it’s limited to US patents/trademarks, for example, a user/licensee would not be protected from a claim that their use violates an EU patent. IP indemnification clauses usually include procedures for tendering a claim for defense and language governing who controls the defense, assistance provided by the indemnified party, and settlement of an indemnified claim. A major benefit of an IP indemnity is that the indemnified party does not have to incur or prove damages resulting from an IP infringement claim first; as long as an indemnified claim is brought against the indemnified party, the indemnification obligations apply. As long as the indemnifying party complies with its defense and indemnification obligations, the indemnified party does not have a right to terminate the agreement.

Service providers will often put contours around the scope of the intellectual property indemnity by including limitations to the obligation to indemnify based on certain acts or omissions of the indemnified party. These include where the user/licensee uses IP outside the scope of the license or terms; where the user/licensee modifies the IP other than as authorized by the IP owner/licensor; where the infringement claim results from the combination of the IP with other products or technology not provided by the IP owner/licensor; and where the user/licensee fails to accept or use an updated version of a product or service provided by the IP owner/licensor which has been modified to be non-infringing. Some parties also exclude IP protection where the claim results from open-source software used in their products or systems. One thing to watch for is whether the exclusions are comparative (claims are excluded “to the extent” that an exception applies) or absolute (if any of the exceptions applies, indemnification is not provided).

Savvy service providers and IP licensors understand that including both of these clauses into an agreement can have unintended consequences, such as the potential for remedy “double-dipping.” If a contract contains both an IP indemnity and IP warranty protecting Party B, and a third-party IP claim is asserted against Party B, Party B may be able to both assert a breach of rep/warranty claim and seek damages for breach of the warranty or seek to terminate the agreement for cause, while also tendering the third party claim to Party A for defense and indemnification. Because of this, many licensors and vendors will offer an IP indemnity, but not an IP warranty. However, this eliminates the ability for the user/licensee to rely on the rep/warranty as an innocent infringer. If both the rep/warranty and indemnity are used, one approach to harmonizing them is to add language to the IP warranty stating that the sole and exclusive remedy for breach of the IP warranty is indemnification pursuant to the IP indemnity. This gives the user/licensee the “innocent infringer” benefits of the IP warranty protection as well as the IP indemnity protection, while ensuring that a breach of the IP warranty does not result in a claim outside of indemnification obligations.

Other Intellectual Property Risk Protections

In addition to IP reps/warranties and IP indemnities, there are other contractual protections which can be used to protect against IP risk.

Indemnification Remedy Clause

Where infringement occurs, the IP user/licensee often wants more than just to be protected — they want the right to keep using the IP for the duration of the agreement. In the event of actual infringement, neither an IP rep/warranty nor IP indemnity forces the IP owner/licensor to remedy the infringement. This is why many agreements include an additional IP infringement remedy clause which generally commits an IP owner/licensor facing a claim or judgment of IP infringement to obtain the right to continue to use the impacted IP, to modify the IP so that it is non-infringing, or to replace the impacted IP with a non-infringing alternative. In some cases, if none of the remedies are feasible, one or both parties may be given the right to terminate the agreement; where a termination right exists, users/licensees should consider whether to ask for a prorated refund of license/usage fees for the remaining terminated period of the agreement. Watch for language on the timing of the remedy – in most cases, it’s when the indemnifying party is found to be infringing by a court of competent jurisdiction (and not when the claim is first asserted), which generally does not impact the user/licensee as the defense and indemnification obligations should apply prior to that point.

Allocation of risk (limitation of liability) Cause

While an IP indemnity and rep/warranty shifts risk to the IP owner/licensor, the amount of risk shifted is allocated between the parties through the limitation of liability clause. Is the indemnifying party willing to provide uncapped liability for its IP indemnification obligations? Some service providers have not priced unlimited liability into its fees, or is unwilling to provide uncapped liability as a policy or due to insurance limitations. The user/licensee usually wants to negotiate the broadest liability cap possible; one common compromise is to negotiate a “super-cap” for IP indemnification obligations above the base limitation on direct damages but short of uncapped.

It’s important to also look at the disclaimer of consequential damages. An indemnified claim can include consequential damages as part of the third-party claim (e.g., lost profits).  If the disclaimer of consequential damages does not specifically exclude indemnification obligations, any such damages claimed by a third party may not be indemnifiable which may not be what one or both parties want.  It’s important to note that there is a significant difference between third-party consequential damages awarded in connection with an indemnified claim, and first-party consequential damages related to an indemnified claim (e.g., the indemnifying party should not have to pay for a company’s lost profits due to an executive having to travel and participate in a deposition in connection with an indemnified claim). An exclusion to the disclaimer of consequential damages for third party damages awarded in connection with, or included in the settlement of, an indemnified claim may provide a finer point on the exclusion.

IP Ownership Clause

Another contract provision which can be leveraged to mitigate IP risk is the IP ownership clause, which addresses ownership of each party’s pre-existing IP as well as any new IP created in connection with the agreement. This clause is ideally located up front in a base agreement between the parties, but sometimes will be placed in a Statement of Work (“SOW”) or other ancillary document instead (order of precedence language in the base agreement can be critically important in that case). Ensure that each party retains ownership of its own IP (except to the extent ownership is transferred to the other party), and that each party is prohibited (to the extent permitted by law) from reverse engineering, disassembling, de-compiling, creating derivative works from, renting, selling, leasing, acting as a service bureau regarding, or otherwise attempting to learn the source code of the other party’s IP. If neither company will acquire ownership rights to the other’s IP (even IP created in connection with the agreement), make sure the ownership clause clearly covers this.  If one company will transfer ownership of developed IP (a “deliverable”) to the other, ensure the agreement clearly defines the deliverable and states that the deliverable is considered “works made for hire” as defined in the US Copyright Act, and consider adding language regarding transfer and assignment of the IP rights in and to the deliverables (which may be tied to payment for the deliverable). If a deliverable contains the developer’s pre-existing IP, consider asking for a perpetual, irrevocable, worldwide right and license to sue the pre-existing IP as part of the deliverable (this may cause the IP indemnity to survive in perpetuity).

IP Insurance Clause

Another way to mitigate and shift the risk arising from IP is through intellectual property insurance. IP insurance can be obtained through specialized policies such as a cyber liability policy and media liability policy. Coverage for IP infringement claims may not be available under comprehensive general liability (CGL) coverage – check your policy or walk through coverage with your insurance broker to ensure you understand what your IP insurance policies (or typical policies) cover and don’t cover. Users/licensees may want to ask the IP owner/licensor about IP insurance they carry, and request that the owner/licensor be obligated to maintain their insurance and protect the user/licensee under the policy, e.g., by tying the contractual limitation of liability to the policy coverage.

Open source software Clause

In many cases, companies use open source software (“OSS”) in their IP. There are a number of good reasons companies do this, including lower costs, better quality, and a large support community. As IP owners/licensors did not create the OSS they use, many will disclaim OSS from IP representations, warranties, and indemnities. However, there are risks to OSS usage. For example, under some OSS license types, software which uses OSS governed by one of those licenses becomes governed by that same license, which can include requirements to disclose the source code upon request or other limitations. Users/licensees may want to consider including an OSS representation/warranty that any IP or other deliverables provided to it will not contain open source software which has not been disclosed in the agreement or a SOW.

Rights in Bankruptcy(§ 365(n))Clause

Licensees under software license agreements have a special tool for mitigating risk arising from a bankruptcy of the software licensor. When a company enters bankruptcy, the licensee (or debtor-in-possession) has certain rights to “affirm” or “reject” the debtor’s executory contracts, including some license agreements. 11 U.S.C § 365(n) gives licensees certain rights to continue to use licensed software in the event of the bankruptcy of the software licensor. To ensure these protections are available, consider including a clause in the agreement protecting the licensee’s rights under this section.

Software Escrow Clause

Finally, consider whether to include a contractual requirement for the owner/licensor to escrow licensed software.  For more on software escrow, please see my earlier post on software escrow.

An earlier version of this post first appeared as an article on my blog,Notes from the Trenches.

Eric Lambert has spent most of his legal career working in-house as a proactive problem-solver and business partner. He specializes in transactional agreements, technology/software/e-commerce, privacy, marketing, compliance and practical risk management, and is a technophile and Internet evangelist/enthusiast. In his spare time Eric dabbles invoice-over work and implementing and integrating connected home technologies. Any opinions in this post are his own. This post does not constitute, nor should it be construed as, legal advice.

Imitation is the Sincerest Form of Copyright Infringement

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The Internet is a vast repository of knowledge and information. Fortunately, there are a number of search engines, websites and tools (including Google, Bing, Yahoo, Ask.com, Wikipedia, and GitHub) to help navigate the waters. When you are looking for something personally or professionally — a picture, audio clip, or video clip for a presentation, a font for a poster, a great article on a topic you want to share with your friends, samples of others’ software code to get past a development issue, song lyrics, etc. — in many cases what you are looking for is just a few clicks and/or searches away. But once you’ve found it online, can you use it? To answer that question, let’s start by debunking a couple of myths.

Myth #1 – If it’s on the Internet, it’s free for anyone to use. Many people think “public domain” and “free to use” is synonymous with “on the Internet.” It’s not. The Internet is an incredible tool for communicating and sharing information. However, the Internet does not negate or trump intellectual property ownership rights. Just because someone posted content online does not automatically mean it’s actually free for anyone to copy and use it for any purpose. In almost all cases, posting something online does not automatically cancel any intellectual property rights held by the owner of the content, including copyright and rights of publicity. The Recording Industry Association of America’s war on consumer music file sharing through peer-to-peer file sharing networks (remember the original Napster?) is a great reminder that people who copy and reuse the copyrighted works of others may be held liable for doing so.

Myth #2 – If I don’t see a copyright notice, it’s not protected by copyright.Under the Berne Convention, an international agreement governing copyright, copyright protections apply once something is created physically or digitally and saved (“fixed in a tangible medium of expression” is the formal term), even if there’s no copyright notice on the protected work. (Registering a copyright with the US Copyright Office and including a copyright attribution, e.g., “© 2016 Eric Lambert,” gives you additional rights such as the potential for significant statutory damages.) Copyright protections include the exclusive right to control copying, public performance, or many other use the work by third parties. If someone re-posts copyrighted content without any ownership notice or attribution, it is still protected by copyright and that poster would likely be liable for copyright infringement. However, if you use that content, even without knowledge that it was copyrighted, you could find yourself receiving a cease-and-desist letter or lawsuit for using it too, and your claim that you didn’t know your use was infringing may not save you from liability.

Now that we’ve debunked the myths, let’s talk about how and when you can use online content. Online content can be grouped into 3 categories:

  1. Copyrighted or Otherwise Protected Content. The first category is content that is clearly covered by copyright or other intellectual property protections like rights of publicity. This category includes things like content with a copyright notice on it; content used under a license (“used with permission”); content on a site with terms of use or another disclaimer restricting the ability to copy or reuse content without permission; pictures of celebrities; famous cartoon characters; and so on. If you want to use copyrighted or otherwise protected content, you need the permission of the copyright owner, i.e., a license to use it.
  3. “Fair Use” exception.  There is one important exception — the “fair use” exception — that provides a limited right to use copyrighted content for purposes such as commentary, criticism, scholarly research, news reporting, public classroom education, parody, or other “transformative” purposes (new meaning, added value, or a different manner of expression) without the copyright owner’s permission. The exception recognizes that in some cases, the benefit to society to allow use of a work outweighs the copyright holder’s rights to control use of the work. If it’s fair use, it’s not copyright infringement. However, there’s no definitive rule as to what is and is not fair use. Instead, courts look at four factors to determine fair use – (1) the purpose and character of the use(i.e., is it transformative, is it commercial or non-commercial, etc.), (2) the nature of the copyrighted work, (3) the amount and substantiality of the copyrighted work that is used(i.e., is it more than a “de minimis” portion of the work), and (4) the effect of the use on the potential market for, and value of, the copyrighted work).
  4. Open Source and “Public Licensed” Content.The second category of content is “open source” and “public licensed” content. “Open source” refers primarily to software — its computer software distributed under a license whose source code is available for modification or enhancement by anyone as long as the requirements of the license are followed. For more on open-source software, please see my earlier post on the topic.  You can use open source software you find online as long as you comply with the terms of the open source license.
  6. “Public licensed” content is content distributed under a similar license. It grants anyone certain rights to use the content in a way that would normally be prohibited under copyright law, as long as the use is within the boundaries of the license. These public licenses preserve the owner’s copyright in the content, but cede certain rights to anyone who wants to use the content. The most common public licenses are the six Creative Commons licenses. Creative Commons licenses give anyone the right to use content for noncommercial purposes with attribution to the content owner, and depending on the type of license, may additionally be able to use the content commercially, create derivative works from the content, and/or share the content with others under the same license (“share-alike”). You can use public licensed content as long as you comply with the terms of the public license.
  7. Everything Else – “Murky Content”. The third category is everything else — anything not clearly subject to copyright or other IP protection, and not clearly open source or public licensed (let’s call it “murky content”). This is the content that causes the most trouble, because Internet users may have no way to know whether something they find online that looks like it’s free to use is actually subject to copyright or other intellectual property protection, or is governed by a public or open source license. In this case, you need to make a judgment/risk call whether to use murky content.  Generally, using murky content for commercial purposes carries the most risk, and using it non-commercially carries the least. Most people don’t create and freely share content for the fun of it — they derive value from it. If murky content looks like something someone would want to monetize, it’s likely protected content requiring some form of license to use. There’s no sure way to gauge the risk of using murky content — the only way you’ll ever know for use is if you get in trouble for using it, and by then it’s too late.
  9. Some argue there is an “implied license” to use online content which protects users of online content. They argue that if a content owner posts content on their website or makes it available through Google, promotes links to the content through methods such as social media buttons, and does not restrict the ability to copy the content (e.g., no disabling of the ability to save or “screen scrape” content), the content owner is implying that it’s OK to reuse it. The biggest issue with the “implied license” argument is that like fair use there’s no easy way to know if it applies or not — you have to make a judgment call. It’s also important to note that the implied license argument assumes that the content was posted by the content owner.  Courts may be very hesitant to embrace this concept as it would mean significantly watering down copyright protection for online content.

Don’t forget photos may bring up not just copyright issues, but rights of publicity as well. If you use someone’s picture found online to promote your product or service, not only could you face a copyright suit from the copyright owner of the photo, the subject of the photo could have a claim against you using their name or likeness in a commercial manner without their consent. It’s also worth noting that using images of a cartoon or corporate logo grabbed from the Internet could also create trademark infringement or trademark dilution issues.

Finally, as you navigate the world of online content, keep these simple rules in mind:

  • Check the applicable terms and policies before using web-based content. If you find content you want to reuse on a website or online service, check the Terms of Use, Applicable Use Policy, or similar terms or policy for ownership, license, or usage rights language that could give you the right, or restrict your right, to use the content.
  • Use license filters when searching images. If you’re searching for images on Bing Images or Google Images, you can filter your search by license type (e.g., in Google Images, if you click “Search Tools” you can search by “Usage Rights” such as “Labeled for reuse with modification,” “Labeled for reuse,” “Labeled for noncommercial reuse with modification,” and “Labeled for noncommercial use.” Keep in mind that license information may be wrong, but you’ll have an argument that you relied on the license type filter.
  • If it looks professionally done, it probably is. If you find content online that looks like it was made by a pro, it probably was. If there’s no license associated with professional-looking content, there’s a reasonable chance that someone else redistributed it without the ownership or copyright attribution. Also, if you can’t easily save content (e.g., the “save as” in the right-click context menu or the “copy” function for the browser is disabled on that website), it’s likely because the content owner does not want people capturing or “screen scraping” their content.
  • Just because it’s protected doesn’t mean you can’t use it. Finally, don’t forget that many copyright owners are willing to grant a license to use their work if you ask them. Some may just want the exposure and ask for an attribution; some may want a license fee. A little internet sleuthing can uncover the owner’s email address or other contact information for contact purposes. If you like the content and are willing to obtain a license to use it, make sure the license you receive is broad enough for the way you intend to use the content or work, both today and in the foreseeable future.